Jesus in Christianity

Christian views of Jesus consist of the teachings and beliefs held by Christian groups about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life. Generally speaking, adhering to the Christian faith requires a belief that Jesus is the Son of God and the Messiah or Christ. Jesus refers to himself as both the Son of Man and Son of God in the New Testament. The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (māšiáħ) meaning anointed one (see The Gospel according to the Hebrews). The translation of the Greek Χριστός (Christos) is the source of the English word Christ.

The core Christian belief is that through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.[1] Theologian and bishop Lesslie Newbigin says "The whole of Christian teaching would fall to the ground if it were the case that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus were not events in real history, but stories told to illustrate truths which are valid apart from these happenings."[2] Most adherents of the Christian faith believe that Jesus was both human and the Son of God: God in human form—sharing human frailties and temptations but never acting on them, only seeking to do the will of His father in heaven, never once seeking to make Himself happy in any way but willfully submitting to God as a man, never doing what He wanted to do but what He saw His Father in heaven doing. They hold that Jesus' first coming was the fulfillment of most messianic prophecies of the Old Testament and that the rest will be fulfilled on his second coming.

While there have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, Trinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate, God the Son, and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. According to the Bible, God raised him from the dead.[3] He ascended to heaven, to the "right hand of God,"[4] and he will return again[5] to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment and establishment of the physical Kingdom of God.

According to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the canonical Gospels. However, infancy Gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, is well documented in the Gospels contained within the New Testament. The Biblical accounts of Jesus' ministry include: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.

Contents

Overview

This section presents a brief overview of different views held by certain Christians concerning Jesus. Each point is detailed in subsequent sections. Because groups describing themselves as Christian hold differing views about Jesus, the predominant, traditional view is presented first, followed by variants.

Predominant view

Christians predominantly profess that Jesus is the Christ (Matthew 16:16–17; 1 Corinthians 2:8), the only Son of the Living God, the Lord,[6] and the eternal Word.[7] They profess Jesus to be the second of three divine persons, or hypostases, of the Holy Trinity: Jesus the Son constitutes, together with God the Father and the Holy Spirit, the single substance of the One God.[8] Furthermore, Jesus is defined to be one person with a fully human and fully God, a doctrine known as the Hypostatic union.[9]

The Incredulity of Saint Thomas, by Caravaggio (1601–02) — "Reach out your hand and put it into my side. Stop doubting and believe." John 20:27

Christians predominantly profess that Jesus became man in the incarnation,[10] so that those who believe in him might have eternal life.[11] They further hold that he was born of the Virgin Mary by the power of the Holy Spirit in an event described as the miraculous virgin birth.[12]

Christians predominantly profess that Jesus is the Messiah (Greek: Christos; English: Christ) prophesied in the Old Testament.[13] In his life Jesus proclaimed the "good news" (Middle English: gospel; Greek: euangelion, ευαγγελιον) that the coming Kingdom of Heaven was at hand,[14] and established the Christian Church, which is the seed of the kingdom, into which Christ calls the poor in spirit.[15] Jesus' actions at the Last Supper, where he instituted the Eucharist, are understood as central to worship and communion with God.[16] They profess that Jesus suffered death by crucifixion,[17] descended into hell (hades, place of the dead),[18] and rose bodily from the dead in the definitive miracle that foreshadows the resurrection of humanity at the end of time,[19] when Christ will come again to judge the living and the dead, resulting in election to Heaven or damnation to Hell.[20]

Christians predominantly profess that through his life, death, and resurrection, Jesus restored man's communion with God in the blood of the New Covenant. His death on a cross is understood as a redemptive sacrifice: the source of humanity's salvation and the atonement for sin,[21] which had entered human history through the sin of Adam.[22]

Other views

Other groups hold different views concerning Jesus' divinity and humanity. Nestorianism teaches that Jesus was two persons,[23] rather than one, rejecting the unity of Jesus' natures, whereas Monophysitism teaches that Jesus had one nature, rather than two.[24] Neither of these views differ concerning the other points. Docetism,[25] conversely, teaches that Jesus' humanity was merely an illusion, and instead he is understood as purely divine. This view does not teach the incarnation or the mortal death of Jesus by crucifixion, and understands the resurrection in significantly different terms.

Non-trinitarianism does not define God in terms of three divine persons. Some of these groups teach that Jesus is not, or at least was not always, God. Others see Jesus as God, but not distinct from the Father or Spirit, often describing those as merely changes in appearance, or modes of existence. Mormons consider Jesus to be the son of God, a separate being, united with the Father and Spirit in purpose.

Some Liberal Christians generally consider Jesus to have been an ordinary man only. They generally believe that miraculous and prophetic events in Jesus' life were not historical. They sometimes find a metaphorical meaning in what they consider fictitious accounts of his life. Jesus' relationship with God is described in widely diverse views within this group.[26]

Christians in the emerging church believe Jesus was an example only; not divine, not ordinary. The view is looked down upon by most other branches of Christianity.

Sources used

Illuminated manuscript of the Gospels c. 1220

Christian views of Jesus are derived from various sources, but especially from the canonical Gospels. Christians predominantly hold that these works are historically true.[27] Christians do not limit themselves to merely historical methods, but because they believe the Bible is inspired by God, they employ religious methods as well, such as typology and other forms of exegesis. Similarly, they follow the theological insights, concerning Jesus, of the New Testament epistles.

The Roman Catholic view is expressed in the Second Vatican council document, Dei Verbum:

Holy Mother Church has firmly and with absolute constancy held, and continues to hold, that the four Gospels just named, whose historical character the Church unhesitatingly asserts, faithfully hand on what Jesus Christ, while living among men, really did and taught…. The sacred authors wrote the four Gospels, selecting some things from the many handed on by word of mouth or in writing, reducing some of them to a synthesis, explaining some things in view of the situation of their churches and preserving the form of proclamation but always in such fashion that they told us the honest truth about Jesus.[28]

Furthermore, Catholic and Orthodox Christians develop their views of Jesus from Sacred Tradition, which includes the decrees of Ecumenical Councils, and material from the writings of the Church Fathers. Additionally, a prominent place is given for the teachings of certain theologians, called "Doctors of the Church," known for their orthodoxy, eminent learning, and sanctity. Anglican Christians affirm that the Church has "authority in Controversies of Faith" and is "a witness and a keeper of Holy Writ"[29], and they accept the doctrinal decrees of the Ecumenical Councils insofar as they are agreeable to Holy Scripture [30] Most Protestant Christians also consider these sources valuable in developing their views of Jesus.

Some ancient texts, known as apocrypha or "secret writing," filled in the silence of the New Testament writings and the Apostolic Fathers on certain matters with often fantastic and picturesque accounts. Other texts had more doctrinal aims, some of which presented teachings condemned by the early Church. Concerning Christian use of these texts for developing views of Jesus, in antiquity Origen expressed the position still predominantly held by Christians today:

We are not unaware that many of these secret writings were produced by wicked men, famous for their iniquity…. We must therefore use caution in accepting all these secret writings that circulate under the name of saints...… because some of them were written to destroy the truth of our Scripture and to impose a false teaching. On the other hand, we should not totally reject writings that might be useful in shedding light on the Scripture. It is a sign of a great man to hear and carry out the advice of Scripture: "Test everything; retain what is good."[31]

Some of these texts were didactic works expressing the theology of unorthodox groups, and obviously these groups held a converse view of their writings than that of Origen and orthodoxy. Thus, in antiquity, variant groups at times employed these apocryphal works in developing their view of Jesus, and though they vanished at a given historical point, modern reconstructionist movements often reemploy these texts in developing their views of Jesus. Notable groups include Gnosticism, and that of the Ebionites.

Christology

Main article: Christology

Christology is the part of theology that deals with the person and natures of Jesus Christ. This includes doctrinal articulation of his divine and human natures, especially insofar as it relates to God's communion with humanity.

The Gospel of John calls Jesus the Logos. How does that relate to the person and natures of Jesus Christ? New Testament Scholar Frank Stagg sorts it out this way:

The Fourth Gospel may give answers to three groups: Jews, Gnostics, and followers of John the Baptist.

  • Jews. To the rabbis who spoke of the Torah (Law) as preexistent, as God's instrument in creation, and is the source of light and life, John replied that these claims apply rather to the Logos.
  • Gnostics. To the Gnostics who would deny a real incarnation, John's answer was most emphatic: "the Word became flesh."[Jn 1:14]
  • Followers of John the Baptist. To those who stopped with John the Baptist, he made it clear that John was not the Light but only witness to the Light. [Jn 1:6ff]
Although the term Logos is not retained as a title beyond the prologue, the whole book of John presses these basic claims. As the Logos, Jesus Christ is God in self-revelation (Light) and redemption (Life). He is God to the extent that he can be present to man and knowable to man. The Logos is God,[Jn 1:1] and the risen Christ is worshiped by Thomas, who fell at his feet saying, "My Lord and my God."[20:28] Yet the Logos is in some sense distinguishable from God, for "the Logos was with God."[1:1] God and the Logos are not two beings, and yet they are also not simply identical. In contrast to the Logos, God can be conceived (in principle at least) also apart from his revelatory action─although we must not forget that the Bible speaks of God only in his revelatory action. The paradox that the Logos is God and yet it is in some sense distinguishable from God is maintained in the body of the Gospel. That God as he acts and as he is revealed does not "exhaust" God as he is, is reflected in sayings attributed to Jesus: I and the Father are one"[Jn 10:30] and also, "the Father is greater than I."[14:28] The Logos is God active in creation, revelation, and redemption. Jesus Christ not only gives God's Word to us humans; he is the Word.[1:14] [14:6] He is the true word─ultimate reality revealed in a Person. The Logos is God, distinguishable and thought yet not separable in fact.

– Frank Stagg, New Testament Theology.[32]

Hypostatic union

Hypostatic union is a theological term that expresses that Christ is one person (prosopon) who subsists in two natures (φύσεις physeis) human and divine. This is therefore related to the doctrine of the Incarnation. The term "hypostasis" (ὑπόστασις) means literally "that which lies beneath," and is also referred to as the mystical union. More simply, the doctrine states that Jesus is both fully human and fully divine. Included in this is the doctrine of Dythelitism, i.e., that Christ has two wills, which always act in union. These doctrines were pronounced by the Ecumenical Councils of Ephesus, Chalcedon, and Constantinople.

The term "hypostasis" was used by some Greek philosophers to distinguish reality from appearances,[33] and, before its theological employment by the Council of Nicaea, it was synonymous with "substance" or "being" (ousia). The subtle theological distinction was fully expressed by the Council of Chalcedon, which declared that the one substance and one person of Christ was in two natures, each perfectly united yet with each retaining its own properties (eis en prosopon kai mian hpostasin).[34]

Groups that reject either the divinity or humanity of Jesus obviously do not hold the doctrine of hypostatic union. However, some groups that believe Jesus is both man and God employ different teachings to explain this relationship. Nestorianism holds that Christ not only has two natures, but that he is two physical persons united morally, but not physically, by means of grace. Monophysitism holds that Jesus has only one nature: either his human nature is wholly absorbed by the divine, or the converse, or that the two are mixed such that a third nature results, which supersedes its constituent human and divine components. Monothelitism holds that though Christ has two natures, he only has one will. Many of these views found renewed forms in Western Christianity at the time of the Reformation, especially among Adoptionists, Socinians, and Ubiquitarians.

Trinity

Main article: Trinity

The Trinity is the doctrine that in the unity of the One God, there are three divine persons: the Father, Son, and Spirit, distinct from one another yet of one substance. The three persons are co-eternal and uncreated: "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God."[35] Jesus is understood by Trinitarian Christians to be the person of the Son, eternally begotten by the Father, who came upon earth to deliver to the world.

Such language appears in Matthew 28:19, "Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit." This was incorporated into baptismal formulae, which also invoked a renunciation of Satan, contrasting the initiate's belief in the One God with the idolatry of polytheistic paganism.[36] This language also appears in early doxologies (Galatians 5:25; Romans 8:9; Hebrews 13:15).[37] The doctrine found full articulation with the Council of Nicaea.

Only Son of God

According to the predominant Christian interpretation, the title "Son of God" is understood as an expression of Jesus' divinity, specifically his unique divine sonship as the Second Person of the Trinity.

The title is applied often in the Gospels, notably at the Baptism and the Transfiguration (Matthew 3:17, Matthew 17:5). Also significant is the confession of Peter: "You are the Christ, the Son of the Living God" (Matthew 16:16). Jesus applies the title "the only Son of God" to himself in John 3:16 and John 10:36. John's gospel uses the title as a short formula for expressing his divinity: "We have beheld his glory, glory as of the only Son from the Father, full of grace and truth" (John 1:14).

This view is held by virtually all Christians, even most non-Trinitarians, though obviously not by groups that do not believe Jesus was divine. These groups, especially Liberal Christians, generally do not accept the theology of the canonical epistles, and reject the historicity of the specific events in the Gospels. Thus, because in the Old Testament the title "a son of God" was given to various creatures (e.g., angels, the children of Israel, Jewish kings, and specifically the promised Messiah),[38] they understand it as nothing more than belief in Jesus' Messiahship, if that.

Nontrinitarians

Main article: Nontrinitarianism

In antiquity, sporadically in the Middle Ages, and again following the Reformation until today, differing views existed concerning the Godhead from those of Trinitarians and the related traditional Christology. Though diverse, these views may be generally classified into those that hold Christ to be only divine and not differing from the Father hypostatically, and those that hold Christ to be less fully God than the Father, in the most extreme form being a mere human prophet.[39] Ancient examples include the Gnostics (syncretistic religious movement), most of whom were for the divine and not human redeemer, generally disbelieving the reality of Christ's human flesh.[40] An example of the opposite view, the Arians considered Jesus a creature and thus substantially different from the Father.[41]

Humanity

Christians predominantly profess that Jesus assumed his humanity with the Incarnation. Thus, being fully human, he possessed a human soul, with its operations of intellect and will, and a human body. In his human nature, Jesus had limited human knowledge, exercised in the historical conditions of his existence, and increased through from experience. Yet this human wisdom is understood as perfectly united with his divine omnipotence, thus Jesus enjoyed in his human knowledge the fullness of understanding of the eternal plans he had come to reveal.[48] The Council of Constantinople professed that Jesus possesses two wills and two natural operations, divine and human, and his human will submits to his divine will.[49]

Life

Ministry and message of Jesus

Jesus taught love for God as the foremost responsibility of man and that this love would be demonstrated by obedience to the words of Jesus.[Jn 14:15] Some Christians believe his message to have been that universal love is a direct fulfilling of God's will, rather than observing the laws in the Hebrew Bible. (See also Law and Gospel.) Others believe that the Gospel message was not revealed to the disciples until after Jesus' resurrection from the dead and that people may obtain salvation through the substitutionary atonement of Jesus Christ; these Christians believe that this salvation can be obtained through faith in the atoning sacrifice of resurrection of Jesus from the dead.

Very often, Jesus hid the specificity of his messages through the use of parables. When asked privately by his disciples[Mt. 13:10] why he spoke in parables, Jesus told them[13:11–16] that it was so those who were not his disciples would not understand.

The early fathers of the church further expanded on his message, and much of the rest of the New Testament is concerned with the meaning of Jesus' death and resurrection with the associated responsibilities of Christian life, along with prophetic revelations that show future circumstances and the final outcome of the current age[1 Tim 4] and the Revelation of John. One idea that has remained constant throughout Christian theology is the idea that humanity was redeemed, saved, or given an opportunity to come to salvation through faith in Jesus' divinity. "Jesus died for our sins" is a common Christian aphorism.

While faith in Jesus' divinity and resurrection is sufficient for salvation within most Christian doctrine,[Jn 3:16] good works are certainly expected as evidence of the convert's salvation.[Titus 1:16] Christians are expected to show their faith by their works.[James 2:18] Revelations 3:2 asks the reader to "strengthen the things which remain, that are ready to die," implying that failure to produce good works might lead to a loss of rewards at the believers' judgment. John 13:15 claims that Jesus' life is an example or role model for followers. Jesus states that followers who believe in him can do the works that he does and even "greater works."[Jn 14:12] This last statement has elicited much debate on the role of miracles and healing in current times. See also Antinomianism.

The idea of "salvation" has been interpreted in many ways, and a wide spectrum of Christian viewpoints have existed throughout history up to the present day.

Some especially notable events in the ministry of Jesus, recounted in the Gospels, include:

Crucifixion interpretations

While hanging on the cross, the Gospel of Mark has Jesus asking, "My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?" Many readers find this theologically perplexing, believing that God left him to die on the cross. According to a common interpretation of the scriptures, God the Father was turning away from Jesus at this time because he was suffering in the place of sinners. Others recognise this as an exact quotation of the first verse of Psalm 22, a common way at the time to refer to an entire Psalm. That Psalm begins with cries of despair, but ends on a note of hope and trust in God's triumph and deliverance. It also contains several details that have been taken to apply to Jesus' crucifixion, such as the soldiers casting lots for Jesus' garments and leaving his bones unbroken. Still, others of a long-held tradition see Jesus' words as the ultimate climax of Jesus' entering into the human condition; his exclamation here evinces his full experience and solidarity with humanity, even the experience of alienation from God. Yet, others consider "why hast thou forsaken me" to be a mistranslation of the original Aramaic. They argue that a better translation is "for this I was kept" or "why hast thou let me to live?." Jesus' final words as recorded in Luke 23:46 were "Father, into your hands I commit my spirit."

John 19:30 describes Jesus' final words as "It is finished" upon his death. Also, the account in John does not mention Jesus asking for the "bitter cup" to be taken away from him while praying in the Garden of Gethsemane the night before (eventually ending his prayer with the words, "nevertheless not my will, but thine be done"), but rather skips this and proceeds directly to Jesus' acceptance of God's will, expounding upon his attitude of surrender.[Jn 18:11] It includes a prayer that God watch over his followers.

Resurrection, Ascension, and Second Coming

Main articles: Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus Christ

According to the New Testament, he was raised from the dead by God on the third day following his crucifixion and appeared to his disciples; the Acts of the Apostles reports that forty days later he ascended bodily into Heaven and retains since then both of his natures, divine and human. Paul's letters to the Romans, Ephesians and Colossians, as well as the letter to the Hebrews (traditionally attributed to Paul) claim that Jesus presently exercises all authority in heaven and on earth for the sake of the Church, until all of the earth is made subject to his rule through the preaching of the Gospel, see also the Great Commission. Based on the New Testament, Most Christians believe that Jesus will return from heaven at the end of the age, to judge the living and the dead, and fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy.

Miracles performed

Miracles performed by Jesus, according to the Gospels, include:

Quotations

Well-known quotations attributed to Jesus in the Gospels include:

Legacy

According to most Christian interpretations of the Bible, the theme of Jesus' preaching was that of repentance, faith and love, as demonstrated in Matthew 22:36-40, Luke 10:27, and Mark 12:28-31. (See also Shema Yisrael). During his public ministry, Jesus extensively trained twelve Apostles to continue after his departure his leadership of the many who had begun to follow him, mainly in the towns and villages throughout Galilee, Samaria, Tiberias and the Decapolis. Most Christians who hold that Jesus' miracles were literally true, not allegory, think the Apostles gained the power to perform miracles and heal both Jews and Gentiles alike after they had been empowered by the Holy Spirit of Truth (to pneuma tēs alētheias, το πνευμα τες αλεθειας John 14:17, John 26; Luke 24:49, Acts 1:8, Acts 2:4). Some Christians, citing Mark 16:17, believe that these supernatural powers are given to all believers. According to Acts 2:4, these claims were fulfilled at Pentecost, poignantly the Jewish feast that in addition to other Scriptural events, commemorates also the giving of the Law to Moses. For Christians the legacy Jesus left was one of sacrifice and redemption; they believe that Jesus is the Son of God.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Oxford Companion to the Bible p.649
  2. ↑ J. E. L. Newbigin, The Gospel In a Pluralist Society. (London: SPCK, 1989), p.66.
  3. ↑ Acts 2:24, Romans 10:9, 1Cor 15:15, Acts 2:31-32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40-41, 13:30, 13:34, 13:37, 17:30-31, 1Cor 6:14, 2Cor 4:14, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, 1Thess 1:10, Heb 13:20, 1Pet 1:3, 1:21
  4. ↑ Mark 16:19, Luke 22:69, Acts 2:33, 5:31, 7:55-56, Romans 8:34, Eph 1:20, Col 3:1, Hebrews 1:3, 1:13, 10:12, 12:2, 1Peter 3:22
  5. ↑ Acts 1:9-11
  6. ↑ Apostle's Creed; Nicene Creed; Catechism of the Catholic Church §441–451; Augsburg Confession, article 3; Luther, Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed
  7. ↑ Augsburg Confession, article 3; John 1:1
  8. ↑ Nicene Creed; Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 1; Augsburg Confession, article 1; Second Helvetic Confession, chapter 3; Council of Nicaea I (325) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum (1965) §126; Council of Constantinople II (553) in ibid. §424 and 424; Council of Ephesus in ibid. §255; John 1:1; John 8:58; John 10:30
  9. ↑ Catechism of the Catholic Church §464–469; Thirty Six Articles of the Church of England, article 2 and 3 Second Helvetic Confession, chapter 9; Council of Ephesus (431) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum (1965) §250; Council of Ephesus in ibid. §251; Council of Chalcedon (451) in ibid. §301 and 302; Hebrews 4:15
  10. ↑ Apostle's Creed; Nicene Creed; Catechism of the Catholic Church §461–463;Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 2; Luther, Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed; John 1:14–16; Hebrews 10:5–7
  11. ↑ Catechism of the Catholic Church §456–460; Gregory of Nyssa, Orat. catech. 15 in Patrologia Graeca ed. J. P. Migne(Paris, 1857–1866) 45, 48B; St. Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses 3.19.1 in ibid. 7/1, 939; St. Athanasius, De inc., 54.3 in ibid. 25, 192B. St. Thomas Aquinas, Opusc. in ibid. 57: 1–4; Galatians 4:4–5
  12. ↑ Apostle's Creed; Nicene Creed; Catechism of the Catholic Church §484–489, 494–507; Luther, Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed
  13. ↑ Catechism of the Catholic Church §436–40; Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 2; Irenaeus Adversus Haereses in Patrologia Graeca ed. J. P. Migne (Paris, 1857–1866) 7/1, 93; Luke 2:1; Matthew 16:16
  14. ↑ Catechism of the Catholic Church §541–546
  15. ↑ Apostle's Creed; Catechism of the Catholic Church §551–553; Augsburg Confession, article 8; Luther, Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed; Second Helvetic Confession, chapter 9; Leo the Great, Sermo 4.3 in Patrologia Latina ed. J. P. Migne (Paris, 1841–1855); Matthew 16:18
  16. ↑ Catechism of the Catholic Church §1322–1419; Luther, Augsburg Confession, article 10; Small Catechism: the Sacrament of the Altar
  17. ↑ Apostle's Creed; Nicene Creed; Luther, Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed; Second Helvetic Confession, chapter 9
  18. ↑ Apostle's Creed; Catechism of the Catholic Church §632–635; Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 3; Augsburg Confession, article 3; Council of Rome (745) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum (1965) §587; Benedict XII, Cum dudum (1341) in ibid. §1011; Clement VI, Super quibusdam (1351) in ibid. §1077; Council of Toledo IV (625) in ibid. §485; Matthew 27:52–53
  19. ↑ Catechism of the Catholic Church §638–655; Byzantine Liturgy, Troparion of Easter; Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 4 and 17; Augsburg Confession, article 3; Second Helvetic Confession, chapter 9; See also, apologetics.com and worldinvisible.com.
  20. ↑ Apostle's Creed; Nicene Creed Catechism of the Catholic Church §668–675, 678–679; Luther, Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed; Matthew 25:32–46
  21. ↑ Catechism of the Catholic Church §606–618; Council of Trent (1547) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum (1965) §1529; John 14:2–3
  22. ↑ Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, article 9; Augsburg Confession, article 2; Second Helvetic Confession, chapter 8; Romans 5:12–21; 1Cor. 15:21–22.
  23. ↑ Nestorius and Nestorianism
  24. ↑ from The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2007
  25. ↑ "Docetism". Docetism. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030754/Docetism. Retrieved 2008-11-30. 
  26. ↑ What Liberal Protestants Believe
  27. ↑ Second Vatican Council, Dei Verbum (V.19); Thomas Aquinas, Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses?; c.f. Catechism of the Catholic Church, §116; R.C. Sproul, Knowing Scripture pp. 45–61; Greg Bahnsen, A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (art. 6); Scott Foutz, Martin Luther and Scripture
  28. ↑ Second Vatican Council, Dei Verbum (V.19)
  29. ↑ The Thirty-Nine Articles
  30. ↑ See, for example, the Theological Statement of the Anglican Church in North America and the Affirmation of St. Louis.
  31. ↑ Origen, In Matthew 28; Patrologiae cursus completus, Series Graeca (Paris: Migne, 1857–1866) 13, 1637; scriptural quote is 1 Thessalonians 5:21.
  32. ↑ Frank Stagg, New Testament Theology, Broadman, 1962. ISBN 978-0805416138
  33. ↑ Aristotle, "Mund.," IV, 21
  34. ↑ Denzinger, ed. Bannwart, 148
  35. ↑ Athanasian Creed
  36. ↑ cf. Tertullian, De spect. iv; Justin Martyr, Apologia I, iv; Hippolytus, Serm. in Theoph n. 10
  37. ↑ cf 1 Clement 58, 59; Justin Martyr, Apologia I, lxvii
  38. ↑ cf. Deut. 14:1; LXX 32:8; Job 1:6; Ex. 4:22; Hos. 2:1; 11:1; Jer. 3:19; Sir. 36:11; Wis. 18:13; 2 Sam. 7:14; Ps. 82:6.
  39. ↑ John 6:14 Jesus identified as a prophet. The greater Moses.
  40. ↑ Chadwick, East and West p. 5; earlychristianwritings.com, Gnostics, Gnostic Gospels, & Gnosticism; J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines pp. 22–28.
  41. ↑ J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines pp. 226–231; other similar ancient views include Adoptionists, ibid. pp. 115–119
  42. ↑ Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, 'Who is Jesus Christ?'
  43. ↑ On Unitarians, see: UUA.org, Unitarian Views of Jesus; on connection with Socinianism, see: sullivan-county.com, Socinianism: Unitarianism in 16th-17th century Poland and Its Influence (Note that the icon at the top of the page expresses Trinitarian theology with a symbolic hand gesture); on this matter they parallel the ancient Ebionites, see: J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines pp. 139
  44. ↑ Edward B. Bronner (1967), Quakerism and Christianity, Pendle Hill Pamphlet #152, pp. 10-12. Wallingford, PA: Pendle Hill Publications
  45. ↑ Punshon, John. "Portrait in Grey: A Short History of the Quakers." Quaker Books, 1984. ISBN 0852451806
  46. ↑ Hinckley, Gordon (March, 1998). "First Presidency Message: The Father, Son, and Holy Ghost". Ensign. http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll/Magazines/Ensign/1998.htm/ensign%20march%201998.htm/first%20presidency%20message%20the%20father%20son%20and%20holy%20ghost.htm?fn=document-frame.htm&f=templates&2.0. Retrieved 2006-09-08. 
  47. ↑ William Arnold, Is Jesus God the Father?; in this way they parallel ancient Sabellians, see: J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines pp. 119–123; Robert Letham, The Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship pp. 97–98
  48. ↑ CCC 474 cf. Mk 8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34; 14:18–20, 26–30
  49. ↑ Council of Constantinople III (681): DS 556–559
  50. ↑ See the Great Commandment.
  51. ↑ Top Verses Bible jesus

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